Ancient Textile History Project

Introduction

Fibre arts is a discipline that is used today that relies on technology that was established by humans thousands of years ago. With how influential fibre arts and garment making is today, not a lot of attention is given to the history and traditions surrounding the practice. Many academic articles explain the history academically, but there is a lack of focus on translating those facts into an accessible medium. The goal of this project is to present fibre history in a digestible manner, preserving the history of the fibre arts discipline for both participants and an external audience. To do this, I have condensed the research conducted by many archaeologists and textile historians; their works have all been cited on this website, and I highly suggest taking a look at their work. At the bottom of the page there is a terms list going over terms that may not be known by the reader. If confused by any of the bolded terms through the website please check the term list.

As this project is in the beginning stages, the focus of the timeline is centred around ancient Greece and the development and use of fibre art tools. There are also aspects of cultural connection associated with fibre arts. We hope that this project continues to grow, showcasing the impact that fibre arts has had historically and the importance of the tools we use in the craft today. Any suggestions or clarification on terms in the timeline or website are welcome. Thank you for helping this project grow.

By John William Godward - https://manchesterartgallery.org/explore/title/?mag-object-1031, Public Domain, Link

Who made the textiles?

Before examining the tools used to create ancient textile materials, I would like to outline who made these items. There is a disconnect in ancient Greece between the cultural or literary understanding of who made textile products and the archaeological evidence. This stems from the fact that there is relatively little literary evidence from ancient Greece, as papyrus records are easily perishable. What we do have comes from privileged authors whose primary focus was not to record the mundane features of life, but to create documents of entertainment, historical recording, medical records and writings for other purposes. From the literary evidence, spinning and weaving are primarily associated with women and domestic activities. [1]

By Philipp Veit - https://sammlung.staedelmuseum.de/de/werk/athena-bei-der-mit-webereien-beschaeftigten-penelope, PDM-owner, Link

In Homer’s Odyssey, for example, Penelope, Odysseus’s wife, is depicted making a shroud (a burial cloth) for the 15 years her husband is gone; this shroud is important because it is a representation of her wifely activities and loyalty to her husband. [2] (Figure 3 and 5 are depictions of Penelope Weaving.) Homer furthers our understanding of the connection between women and weaving in ancient literature, as he uses the terms “weaving” and “spinning” as an allegory for storytelling or deception. He does this as he depicts the character Circe in the Odyssey, a deceiving witch who is also depicted at the loom in direct opposition to Penelope, the goodwife. [3] A more explicit message can be found in the Myth of Arachne, who cheats and spins lies to Athena in a spinning competition, leading to her transformation into a spider. 4

By Paolo Veronese, Public Domain, Link

There is considerable archaeological evidence indicating that textile making was a group effort, likely undertaken by female slaves rather than merely aristocratic women, as depicted in much of the literary evidence. Archaeological discoveries at Minoan and Mycenaean sites on Crete reveal a centralized room in the palace equipped with textile-making supplies, suggesting the presence of a textile industry within the palace. [5] Spinning was most associated with women in the ancient world. Other aspects of fibre creation were performed by men in the Bronze Age, such as the preparation and dyeing of the fibres; however, spinning and weaving were typically done by women. [6] Loom weights from the southern Aegean suggest Artisan slave trade, as tools of trade were not often traded as they could be made locally. [7] We also know that “wool making” was an occupation of slaves in ancient Greece, as a 4th-century Athenian Manumission document denotes the work of the freed slaves. [8]

Who used the loom or dyed the wool in ancient Greece will never be known for sure. The beauty of studying ancient cultures lies in the fact that we will likely never know the whole story; we can only piece together parts of the story through research on the subject. The primary purpose of this section is to provide background information and explain the extent of debate surrounding the ancient textile industry. I recommend checking out the sources and drawing your conclusion.

By Willy Pogany - https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/16867, Public Domain

The Ancient Art of Spinning and Weaving : A Timeline

Dive back into history and learn about the textile techniques used by the ancient Greek people from the Bronze age to the Classical Period by exploring this interactive timeline.

Please note that the dates in the timeline are refering to BC (before christ) but the designation of BC was not able to be added to the timeline. The Timeline starts at 2200 BC as that is the oldest time period in the timeline and ancient dating starts at the oldest known timeperiod until year 1 when it then switches to AD (Anno Domini- year of our lord) and goes up to present day.

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Terms

Time Periods

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1200 BC) – The Minoan (c. 3000– 1100 BC) and Mycenaean (c.1750 to 1050 BC) civilizations flourished during the Bronze Age. They had used written languages like Linear A and B, but these languages were used primarily for record-keeping. (Linear A has yet to be translated.) The Minoan people lived in Crete and had a grand palace. When the Minoan civilization fell in c.1100 BC, the Mycenaean people took over the palace on Crete. The excavation of the Cretan palace has given us much information about Minoan and Mycenaean textile practices.

Dark Ages (c. 1100–800 BC) - A period for which we have almost no evidence of Greek life. It is likely a period of great tragedy. (If you are interested in the Dark Ages, here is the Wikipedia page, but it is not central to our discussion of textiles.)

Archaic Period (c. 800-490 BC) - The Archaic Period is characterized by the emergence of writing, as seen in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. This period also witnessed economic growth and political emergence, marked by increased international relations and warfare.

Classical Period (c. 490-323 BC) – The Classical Period is known for the boom in Art, Literature, Philosophy, and politics that emerged from Athens after the victory in the Greco-Persian Wars.

• There are more periods after the classical period, but these are the only periods we are exploring in this section.

Terms used in the project

Spinning - The action of turning fibre like fleece into string or wool.

Weaving - The action of taking string or wool and making it into fabric. (Other methods can be used to create a fabric as well, like crocheting or knitting.)

Papyrus - Similar to thick paper, it is made from the papyrus plant. The Greeks also used Wax tablets and prepared leather, similar to vellum, for record-keeping.

Shroud – This is a burial garment used to wrap around dead bodies. In ancient Greek culture, it was customary for women, usually wives or mothers, to make the shroud and prepare for a funeral.

Knossos - Is the Bronze Age Palace on Crete. This is the Palace where the Minoan people ruled and where the later Mycenaean people ruled.

Lekythos - A type of oil flask.

Black-figure Pottery - Is a style of pottery decoration used in ancient Greece, specifically during the Archaic Period. The style is created by using a pigmented glaze on the pot to create the desired design.

White-ground Pottery – Is a style of pottery decoration dated to the end of the Archaic period and developed in Attica. It was typically used as a funerary vase, as the white glaze covering the entire piece made it very delicate.

Attica - Refers to the greater Polis (city-state) of Athens. It is similar to the label of the “Greater Toronto Region” in the Ontario region, as the “Greater Toronto Region” refers to other cities in the vicinity. However, those cities still maintain their own distinct identities.

Discoid – Refers to something that resembles a disc, as it is flat and circular.

Band-loom - It is a specific type of Loom that may have been used in ancient times. I would suggest checking out this source about band-looms (Agata Ulanowska, “In Search of ‘Invisible’ Textile Tools and Techniques of Band Weaving in the Bronze Age Aegean.)

Warp-weighted loom - The warp-weighted loom is a complicated tool to explain. I would suggest checking the source that is cited in the timeline (Eric Broudy, The book of looms). I have also attached the Celtic weaving site, which does a great job of explaining the process. (Example of warp-weighted loom below).

Sword beater - A tool used when working with the warp-weighted loom. (Refer back to the warp-weighted loom).

Drop spindle - Is a tool used for spinning. Its use has been explained in the timeline. If more information is needed, I have attached the spinner Jillian Eves’ site as she has an excellent step-by-step tutorial for spinning with a drop spindle. (Example of a drop spindle below).

Weighted whorl - Is a part of the spindle.

The distaff - Is used in conjunction with a drop spindle to hold the raw fibre. The wiki dose a good job at explaining the process (Example of a distaff below.)

Raw fibre - Is the wool, cotton, flax seed, or other fibre to be spun into yarn before it has been spun. If you are interested in this aspect of fibre arts, I have attached a community page about the process.

Footnotes

Footnotes for “who made the textiles?” section

[1] For those with an interest in the topic of the literary connection of homemaking and weaving, I suggest looking at this article to start your discovery. I. D. Jenkins, “The Ambiguity of Greek Textiles,” Arethusa 18, no. 2 (1985): 109–32.

[2] Homer, Odyssey, book nineteen, trans. Richmond Lattimore, (Harper Collins Publishers, 1967), 125- 140. If you are interested in reading more of Homer, check out the Theoi website, which has an excellent translation of the text.

[3] Jenkins, “Ambiguity of Greek Textiles,” 111. Hom. Od. 9. 220-225.

[4] It is essential to note that we do not have the original Greek myth of Arachne, but rather the retold myth by Ovid from the Roman Period (about 20 BC). There is nothing wrong with using later sources like this, but the last source would have been influenced by Roman ideals, and we cannot say for sure that this is precisely like the Myth during the Greek period. Ovid, “Arachne and Minerva” in Metamorphoses, trans. More, Brookes (Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922), 6. 1-129.

[5] More information about this can also be found by viewing the timeline. Pietro Militello, “Textile Industry and Minoan Palaces,” chapter in Ancient Textiles Production, Crafts and Society, ed. Marie-Louise Nosch and C. Gillis (Oxbow Books, 2007) 86.

[6] Maria Emanuela Alberti, “Washing and Dyeing Installations of the Ancient Mediterranean: Towards a Definition from Roman Times Back to Minoan Crete,” essay, in Ancient Textiles Production, Crafts and Society , (Oxbow Books, 2007), 125–33.

[7] Joanne Cutler, “Arachne’s Web: Women, Weaving and Networks of Knowledge in the Bronze Age Southern Aegean,” The Annual of the British School at Athens 114 (September 13, 2019): 86.

[8] Kelly L. Wrenhaven, “The Identity of the ‘Wool-Workers’ in the Attic Manumissions,” Hesperia 78, no. 3 (September 30, 2009): 367–368.

Footnotes for “Agate Minoan Spindle Whorl” section of timeline

[1] Pietro Militello, “Textile Industry and Minoan Palaces,” chapter in Ancient Textiles Production, Crafts and Society, ed. Marie-Louise Nosch and C. Gillis (Oxbow Books, 2007), 86. Eric Broudy, The book of looms, (Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, 1979), 42.

[2] Pietro Militello, “Textile Industry and Minoan Palaces,” 86, 89, 94.

[3] Pietro Militello, “Textile Industry and Minoan Palaces,” 89, 94. During the Minoan and Mycenaean production periods, most fibre creation, picking, and preparation were done outside the palace by community members. Françoise Rougemont, “Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean Palatial Economy,” chapter in Ancient Textiles Production, Crafts and Society, ed. Marie-Louise Nosch and C. Gillis (Oxbow Books, 2007), 102-103.

[4] Dafna Langgut et al., “The Earliest near Eastern Wooden Spinning Implements,” Antiquity 90, no. 352, 981.

[5] Langgut et al., “Eastern Wooden Spinning Implements,” 975.

[6] Margarita Gleba, “Tracing Textile Cultures of Italy and Greece in the Early First Millennium BC,” Antiquity 91, no. 359 (September 20, 2017): 1218 - 1219. Joanne Elizabeth Cutler, Crafting Minoanisation: Textiles, Crafts Production and Social Dynamics in the Bronze Age Southern Aegean, (Havertown: Oxbow Books, Limited, 2021), 129.

[7] Broudy, The book of looms, 42.

Footnotes for “Discoid terracotta loom-weight with one hole” section of timeline

[1] Broudy, The book of looms, 24.

[2] Agata Ulanowska, “In Search of ‘Invisible’ Textile Tools and Techniques of Band Weaving in the Bronze Age Aegean,” chapter in First Textiles: The Beginnings of Textile Manufacture in Europe and the Mediterranean, ed. Malgorzara Siennicka and Agata Ulanowska, 32 (Oxbow Books, 2018), 421, 432.

[3] Ulanowska, “In Search of ‘Invisible’ Textile Tools,” 421, 430.

Footnotes for “The Amasis Painter” section of timeline

[1] Homer’s original story does not specify the exact type of loom that Penelope used, but ancient potters typically depict her using a wrap-weighted loom. Telemachus and Penelope at the loom. Representation of a painting on a Greek drinking vessel, c. 460 450 B.C., in the Chiusi Museum, Italy. From Wilhelm Kraiker, Die Malerei der Griechen, 1958.

[2] Broudy, The book of looms, 25.

Footnotes for “The Brygos Painter” section of timeline

[1] Cutler, Crafting Minoanisation, 147.

Appendix

Website

(Figure 1) Short column, Athens Delphi. Photograph by Holly Reid, 2024.

(Figure 2) John William Godward, On the Balcony, 1898, painted. Photograph by Ostrea, Wikimedia Commons, 2024.

(Figure 3) Philip Veit, Athena with Penelope weaving (Athena bei der mit Webereien beschäftigten Penelope), c. 1832, painted. Photo Courtesy of Städel Museum, Frankfurt, accessed 2025.

(Figure 4) Paolo Veronese, Arachne or Dialects, 1520, Fresco. Photograph by Mattes, Wikimedia Commons, 2025.

(Figure 5) Willy Pogány, Penelope Weaving from The Adventures of Odysseus and The Tales of Troy story adapted by Padraic Colum, 2005, painted. Photo Courtesy of Project Gutenberg, accessed 2025.

Media used in Timeline

(in order of the timeline sequence)

(Figure 1) Agate spindle whorl from c. 2200–1450 BC, Crete, Knossos. Credited to Bequest of Richard B. Seager, 1926. Item number 26.31.401. Photo courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET), New York, accessed 2025.

(Figure 2) Discoid terracotta loom-weight with one hole from 2000 BC- 1600 BC, Crete, Knossos. Donated by Col John Valentine Salvage, 1938. Asset number 599648001. Photo courtesy of The Trustees of the British Museum, London, accessed 2025.

(Figure 3) Spindle whorls from c. 550-480 BC, Sanctuary of the Nymphe, Attica. Photograph by Watermelonpeople89, Wikimedia Commons, 2025.

(Figure 5) The Amasis Painter, Terracotta lekythos, black-figure depicting two women working at an upright loom, c. 550–530 BC, Attica, Greece. Credited to Fletcher Fund, 1931. Item number 31.11.10. Photo courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET), New York, accessed 2025.

(Figure 6) The Brygos Painter, White-ground jug showing a woman spinning, 490 BC- 470 BC, Attica, Greece. Purchased from Alessandro Castellani. Asset number 278013001. Photo courtesy of The Trustees of the British Museum, London, accessed 2025.

Biblography

Ancient Sources:

Homer. Odyssey “book nineteen.” Translated by Richmond Lattimore. Harper Collins Publishers, 1967.

Ovid. “Arachne and Minerva.” In Metamorphoses. Translated by More, Brookes. Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922.

Modern Sources:

Alberti Maria Emanuela. “Washing and Dyeing Installations of the Ancient Mediterranean: Towards a Definition from Roman Times Back to Minoan Crete.” Chapter in Ancient Textiles Production, Crafts and Society, 125–33. Oxbow Books, 2007.

Françoise Rougemont. “Flax and Linen Textiles in the Mycenaean Palatial Economy.” Chapter in Ancient Textiles Production, Crafts and Society. Edited by Marie-Louise Nosch and C. Gillis. Oxbow Books, 2007.

Broudy, Eric. The book of looms. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, 1979.

Cutler, Joanne Elizabeth. “Arachne’s Web: Women, Weaving and Networks of Knowledge in the Bronze Age Southern Aegean.” The Annual of the British School at Athens 114 (September 13, 2019): 79-92. https://doi:10.1017/S0068245419000121.

Cutler, Joanne Elizabeth. Crafting minoanisation: Textiles, crafts production and social dynamics in the bronze age southern aegean. Havertown: Oxbow Books, Limited, 2021.

Gleba, Margarita. “Tracing Textile Cultures of Italy and Greece in the Early First Millennium BC.” Antiquity 91, no. 359 (September 20, 2017): 1205–22. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2017.144.

Jenkins, I. D. “The Ambiguity of Greek Textiles.” Arethusa 18, no. 2 (1985): 109–32. https://doi.org/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44578149.

Langgut, Dafna, Naama Yahalom-Mack, Simcha Lev-Yadun, Eitan Kremer, Micka Ullman, and Uri Davidovich. “The Earliest near Eastern Wooden Spinning Implements.” Antiquity 90, no. 352 (July 19, 2016): 973–90. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2016.99.

Militello, Pietro. “Textile Industry and Minoan Palaces.” Chapter in Ancient Textiles Production, Crafts and Society. Edited by Marie-louise Nosch and C. Gillis, 82–99. Oxbow Books, 2007.

Ulanowska, Agata. “In Search of ‘Invisible’ Textile Tools and Techniques of Band Weaving in the Bronze Age Aegean.” Chapter in First Textiles the Bginnings of Textile Manufacture in Europe and the Mediterranean. Edited by Malgorzara Siennicka and Agata Ulanowska, 421–44. Oxbow Books, 2018.

Wrenhaven, Kelly L. “The Identity of the ‘Wool-Workers’ in the Attic Manumissions.” Hesperia 78, no. 3 (September 30, 2009): 367–86. https://doi.org/10.2972/hesp.78.3.367.

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